The Meiji Restoration, starting in 1868, marked a significant turning point in Japanese history, transforming it into a modern nation-state.^[71] Led by Meiji oligarchs like Ōkubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori, the government aimed to catch up with Western imperialist powers.^[72] Major reforms included abolishing the feudal Edo class structure, replacing it with prefectures, and introducing Western institutions and technologies such as railways, telegraph lines, and a universal education system.

The Meiji government undertook a comprehensive modernization program aimed at transforming Japan into a Western-style nation-state. Major reforms included the abolition of the feudal Edo class structure,^[73] replacing it with a system of prefectures^[74] and implementing extensive tax reforms. In its pursuit of Westernization, the government also lifted the ban on Christianity and adopted Western technologies and institutions, such as railways and telegraphs, as well as implementing a universal education system.^[75] Advisors from Western countries were brought in to help modernize various sectors like education, banking, and military affairs.^[76]

Prominent individuals like Fukuzawa Yukichi advocated for this Westernization, which led to widespread changes in Japanese society, including the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, Western clothing, and hairstyles. The period also saw significant advancements in science, especially medical science. Kitasato Shibasaburō founded the Institute for Infectious Diseases in 1893,^[77] and Hideyo Noguchi proved the link between syphilis and paresis in 1913. Additionally, the era gave rise to new literary movements and authors such as Natsume Sōseki and Ichiyō Higuchi, who blended European literary styles with traditional Japanese forms.

The Meiji government faced internal political challenges, notably the Freedom and People's Rights Movement demanding greater public participation. In response, Itō Hirobumi wrote the Meiji Constitution, promulgated in 1889, which established an elected but limited-power House of Representatives. The constitution maintained the emperor's role as a central figure, to whom the military and cabinet directly reported. Nationalism also grew, with Shinto becoming the state religion and schools promoting loyalty to the emperor.

The Japanese military played a critical role in Japan’s foreign policy objectives. Incidents like the Mudan Incident in 1871 led to military expeditions, while the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion displayed the military’s domestic might.^[78] By defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894,^[79] Japan gained Taiwan and international prestige,^[80] later allowing it to renegotiate "unequal treaties"^[81] and even form a military alliance with Britain in 1902.^[82]

Japan further established itself as a regional power by defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05,^[83] which led to Japan's annexation of Korea by 1910.^[84] This victory represented a shift in the global order, marking Japan as Asia's primary power. During this period, Japan focused on territorial expansion, first by consolidating Hokkaido and annexing the Ryukyu Kingdom, then turning its eyes towards China and Korea.

The Meiji period also witnessed rapid industrialization and economic growth.^[85] Zaibatsus like Mitsubishi and Sumitomo rose to prominence,^[86] leading to a decline in the agrarian population and increased urbanization. The Tokyo Metro Ginza Line, Asia’s oldest subway, opened in 1927. Although the era brought improved living conditions for many, it also led to labor unrest and the rise of socialist ideas, which were harshly suppressed by the government. By the end of the Meiji period, Japan had successfully transitioned from a feudal society to a modern, industrialized nation.