The Parthian Empire, a major Iranian power, existed from 247 BCE to 224 CE.^[23] Founded by Arsaces I,^[24] leader of the Parni tribe,^[25] it began in Parthia in northeast Iran, initially a satrapy rebelling against the Seleucid Empire. The empire expanded significantly under Mithridates I (r. c. 171 – 132 BCE), who captured Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its zenith, the Parthian Empire stretched from today's central-eastern Turkey to Afghanistan and western Pakistan. It was a crucial trade hub on the Silk Road, linking the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty of China.

The Parthians integrated various cultural elements into their empire, including Persian, Hellenistic, and regional influences in art, architecture, religion, and royal insignia. Initially adopting Greek cultural aspects, the Arsacid rulers, who styled themselves as "King of Kings," gradually revived Iranian traditions. Unlike the central administration of the Achaemenids, the Arsacids often accepted local kings as vassals, appointing fewer satraps, mainly outside Iran. The empire's capital eventually moved from Nisa to Ctesiphon, near modern Baghdad.

Parthia's early adversaries included the Seleucids and Scythians. Expanding westward, conflicts arose with the Kingdom of Armenia and later the Roman Republic. Parthia and Rome vied for influence over Armenia. Significant battles against Rome included the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE and capturing Levant territories in 40–39 BCE. However, internal civil wars posed a greater threat than foreign invasion. The empire collapsed when Ardashir I, a ruler in Persis, revolted, overthrowing the last Arsacid ruler, Artabanus IV, in 224 CE, and establishing the Sasanian Empire.

Parthian historical records are limited compared to Achaemenid and Sasanian sources. Known mostly through Greek, Roman, and Chinese histories, Parthian history is also pieced together from cuneiform tablets, inscriptions, coins, and some parchment documents. Parthian art also provides valuable insights into their society and culture.^[26]