The Ptolemaic Kingdom, founded in 305 BCE by Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian general and companion of Alexander the Great, was an Ancient Greek state based in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. This dynasty, lasting until Cleopatra VII's death in 30 BCE, was the final and longest dynasty of ancient Egypt, marking a new era characterized by religious syncretism and the emergence of Greco-Egyptian culture.^[72]

Following Alexander the Great's conquest of Achaemenid Persian-controlled Egypt in 332 BCE, his empire dissolved after his death in 323 BCE, leading to power struggles among his successors, the diadochi. Ptolemy secured Egypt and established Alexandria as its capital, which became a hub of Greek culture, learning, and trade.^[73] The Ptolemaic Kingdom, after the Syrian Wars, expanded to include parts of Libya, Sinai, and Nubia.

To integrate with the native Egyptians, the Ptolemies adopted the title of pharaoh and portrayed themselves in Egyptian style on public monuments while maintaining their Hellenistic identity and customs.^[74] The kingdom's governance involved a complex bureaucracy, primarily benefiting the Greek ruling class, with limited integration of native Egyptians, who retained control over local and religious matters.^[74] The Ptolemies gradually embraced Egyptian customs, starting with Ptolemy II Philadelphus, including sibling marriage and participation in Egyptian religious practices, and supported the construction and restoration of temples.^[75]

Ptolemaic Egypt, from the mid-3rd century BCE, emerged as the wealthiest and most powerful of Alexander's successor states, epitomizing Greek civilization.^[74] However, from the mid-2nd century BCE, internal dynastic conflicts and external wars weakened the kingdom, making it increasingly dependent on the Roman Republic. Under Cleopatra VII, Egypt's entanglement in Roman civil wars led to its annexation as the last independent Hellenistic state. Roman Egypt then became a prosperous province, retaining Greek as the language of government and commerce until the Muslim conquest in 641 CE. Alexandria remained a significant Mediterranean city well into the late Middle Ages.^[76]