The Middle Kingdom of Egypt, spanning from approximately 2040 to 1782 BCE, was a period of reunification following the First Intermediate Period's political division. This era began with the reign of Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty, who is credited with reunifying Egypt after defeating the last rulers of the Tenth Dynasty. Mentuhotep II, considered the founder of the Middle Kingdom,^[29] expanded Egyptian control into Nubia and the Sinai,^[30] and revitalized the ruler cult. ^[31] His reign lasted 51 years, after which his son, Mentuhotep III, ascended the throne.^[30]

Mentuhotep III, who reigned for twelve years, continued consolidating Theban rule over Egypt, building forts in the eastern Delta to secure the nation against Asian threats.^[30] He also initiated the first expedition to Punt. ^[32] Mentuhotep IV followed but is notably absent from ancient Egyptian king lists,^[33] leading to the theory of a power struggle with Amenemhet I, the first king of the Twelfth Dynasty. This period also featured internal conflict, as evidenced by inscriptions from Nehry, a contemporary official.^[34]

Amenemhet I, ascending to power possibly through usurpation,^[35] established a more feudal system in Egypt, built a new capital near modern-day el-Lisht,^[36] and employed propaganda, including the Prophecy of Neferty, to solidify his rule.^[37] He also initiated military reforms and appointed his son Senusret I as co-regent in his twentieth year,^[38] a practice that continued throughout the Middle Kingdom.

Senusret I extended Egyptian influence into Nubia,^[39] controlled the land of Kush,^[40] and strengthened Egypt's position in the Near East.^[41] His son, Senusret III, known as a warrior king, conducted campaigns in Nubia^[42] and Palestine,^[43] and reformed the administrative system to centralize power.^[42]

The reign of Amenemhat III marked the peak of the Middle Kingdom's economic prosperity,^[44] with significant mining operations in the Sinai ^[45] and continued the Faiyum land reclamation project.^[46] However, the dynasty weakened towards its end, marked by the brief reign of Sobekneferu, Egypt's first attested female king.^[47]

Following Sobekneferu's death, the Thirteenth Dynasty emerged, characterized by brief reigns and less central authority.^[48] Neferhotep I was a significant ruler of this dynasty, maintaining control over Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the Delta.^[49] However, the dynasty's power gradually waned, leading to the Second Intermediate Period and the rise of the Hyksos.^[50] This period was marked by political stability, economic growth, military expansion, and cultural development, significantly impacting ancient Egyptian history.