The First Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt, spanning circa 2181–2055 BCE, is often described as a "dark period"^[16] following the end of the Old Kingdom.^[17] This era includes the Seventh (deemed spurious by some Egyptologists), Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, and part of the Eleventh Dynasties. The concept of the First Intermediate Period was defined in 1926 by Egyptologists Georg Steindorff and Henri Frankfort.^[18]

This period is marked by several factors leading to the decline of the Old Kingdom. The prolonged reign of Pepi II, the last major pharaoh of the 6th Dynasty, resulted in succession issues as he outlived many heirs.^[19] The increasing power of provincial nomarchs, who became hereditary and independent from royal control,^[20] further weakened central authority. Additionally, low Nile inundations possibly causing famines,^[21] although the connection to state collapse is debated, were also a factor.

The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties are obscure, with little known about their rulers. Manetho's account of 70 kings ruling for 70 days during this time is likely exaggerated.^[22] The Seventh Dynasty may have been an oligarchy of Sixth Dynasty officials,^[23] and the Eighth Dynasty rulers claimed descent from the Sixth Dynasty.^[24] Few artifacts from these periods have been found, including some attributed to Neferkare II of the Seventh Dynasty and a small pyramid built by King Ibi of the Eighth Dynasty.

The Ninth and Tenth Dynasties, based in Heracleopolis, are also not well-documented. Akhthoes, possibly the same as Wahkare Khety I, was the first king of the Ninth Dynasty, reputed as a cruel ruler and allegedly killed by a crocodile.^[25] The power of these dynasties was significantly less than that of the Old Kingdom pharaohs.^[26]

In the south, influential nomarchs in Siut maintained close ties with the Heracleopolitan kings and acted as a buffer between the north and south. Ankhtifi, a prominent southern warlord, claimed to have saved his people from famine, asserting his autonomy.

The period eventually saw the rise of the Theban line of kings, forming the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties. Intef, the nomarch of Thebes, organized Upper Egypt independently, setting the stage for his successors who eventually claimed kingship.^[27] Intef II and Intef III expanded their territory, with Intef III advancing into Middle Egypt against the Heracleopolitan kings.^[28] Mentuhotep II, of the Eleventh Dynasty, ultimately defeated the Heracleopolitan kings around 2033 BCE, leading Egypt into the Middle Kingdom and ending the First Intermediate Period.