The Fatimid Caliphate, an Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty, existed from the 10th to the 12th centuries CE. It was named after Fatima, daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and her husband, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. The Fatimids were recognized by various Isma'ili communities and other Muslim denominations.^[87] Their rule extended from the western Mediterranean to the Red Sea, including North Africa, parts of the Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant, and the Hejaz.

The Fatimid state was established between 902 and 909 CE under Abu Abdallah's leadership. He conquered Aghlabid Ifriqiya, paving the way for the Caliphate.^[88] Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah, recognized as the Imam, became the first Caliph in 909 CE.^[89] Initially, al-Mahdiyya served as the capital, founded in 921 CE, then moved to al-Mansuriyya in 948 CE. Under al-Mu'izz's reign, Egypt was conquered in 969 CE, and Cairo was established as the new capital in 973 CE. Egypt became the cultural and religious heart of the empire, fostering a unique Arabic culture.^[90]

The Fatimid Caliphate was known for its religious tolerance towards non-Shia Muslims, Jews, and Christians,^[91] although it struggled to convert the Egyptian population to its beliefs.^[92] During the reigns of al-'Aziz and al-Hakim, and particularly under al-Mustansir, the Caliphate saw the caliphs become less involved in state affairs, with viziers gaining more power.^[93] The 1060s brought a civil war, fueled by political and ethnic divisions within the army, threatening the empire.^[94]

Despite a brief revival under vizier Badr al-Jamali, the Fatimid Caliphate declined in the late 11th and 12th centuries,^[95] further weakened by the Seljuk Turks in Syria and the Crusaders in the Levant.^[94] In 1171 CE, Saladin abolished the Fatimid rule, establishing the Ayyubid dynasty and reintegrating Egypt into the Abbasid Caliphate's authority.^[96]